ABSTRACT

Objective:

This study aimed to investigate sleep disorders in patients with episodic migraines and tension-type headaches.

Materials and Methods:

This study was conducted between June 15, 2019, and December 15, 2019, at the neurology clinics of two different tertiary hospitals. The study included 100 healthy volunteers, 102 patients with episodic migraine, and 105 patients with episodic tensiontype headache. All participants were assessed using Beck Depression inventory (BDI), Beck Anxiety inventory (BAI), Epworth Sleepiness scale (ESS), Berlin Questionnaire, Insomnia Severity index (ISI), and Pittsburgh Sleep Quality index (PSQI). The presence and severity of Restless Legs syndrome (RLS) were evaluated according to the International RLS Study Group criteria.

Results:

Patients with migraine and tension headaches had significantly higher BDI, BAI, ESS, ISI, and total PSQI scores compared with the control group. According to the Berlin Questionnaire, 8% of the healthy controls, 20.6% of patients with migraine, and 11.4% of patients with tension headache were at high risk for Sleep Apnea syndrome. RLS criteria were met by 3% of healthy controls, 9.8% of patients with migraine, and 6.7% of patients with tension headache. Subjective sleep quality, sleep disturbance, and daytime dysfunction scores were significantly higher in patients with migraine compared with those with tension headache. By contrast, sleep latency and sleep efficiency scores were significantly higher in patients with tension headache compared with those with migraine.

Conclusion:

The study results indicated that migraines and tensiontype headaches have varying effects on sleep. Hence, for each of the headache types, sleep disorders should be examined under a broad spectrum, and each sleep disorder should be investigated separately.

Keywords: Sleep quality, sleepiness, Obstructive Sleep Apnea syndrome, insomnia, obesity, anxiety, Restless Legs syndrome

Introduction

There is a strong and complex relationship between headaches and sleep. It is well known that sleep disorders lead to headache or induce primary headaches. However, headaches are also known to trigger or induce sleep disorders. Therefore, a “chicken and egg” causality dilemma emerges (1). Sleep has been known to play a therapeutic role in the ending of acute migraine attacks for a long time. Subsequently, doctors sometimes prescribe sleep-inducing drugs to treat migraines. Despite these widespread clinical observations and treatment goals, the relationship between sleep and headache has only drawn attention in recent times (2).

Tension-type headaches and migraines are the most common headache disorders, with prevalence of about 42% (3) and 12% (4), respectively. One meta-analysis demonstrated that both inadequate or excessive sleep may be associated with increased chronic disease-related mortality and morbidity (5). Evaluation of the high prevalence of data on migraine and tension-type headache in the literature together with the results of this meta-analysis once again draws attention to the significance of this comorbidity.

Depression and anxiety are well-known to disrupt sleep (6,7). However, sleep disorders are accepted as a risk factor in the development or aggravation of medical disorders such as depression and anxiety (8). On the other hand, anxiety and depression are frequently encountered in patients with migraine and tension-type headache (9). At the same time, anxiety and depression are also known to trigger headaches (9,10).

The term “sleep disorders” is now being addressed within an expanding spectrum that includes insomnia, Obstructive Sleep apnea, and poor sleep quality as well as other sleep disorders (1). When reviewing relevant literature, it is noteworthy that studies on sleep and headache usually examine a headache together with a sleep disorder (1,11). For example, one study studied the relationship between migraine and Obstructive Sleep Apnea syndrome (OSAS) (12), another investigated migraine and sleep quality (13), while yet another examined excessive daytime sleepiness in those with migraine and tension-type headache (14). Therefore, this could be indicative that there is a need for studies that evaluate primary headaches together with several sleep disorders.

This study aimed to investigate the relationship between sleep disorders, depression, and anxiety in patients with episodic migraines and episodic tension-type headaches.

Materials and Methods

This cross-sectional case-control study was conducted simultaneously at the neurology clinics of two different tertiary hospitals between the dates of June 15, 2019 and December 15, 2019. The study was conducted in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki and informed written consent was obtained from all participants. The study received ethics approval from the university’s ethics committee (protocol no: 2017-KAEK-189_2019.05.29_14).

Study Population

This study included a total of 102 patients with episodic migraine and 105 patients with episodic tension-type headache between ages 18-65 who met the 2018 criteria of the International Headache Classification (15) as well as 100 healthy control group subjects without a diagnosis of headache.

Volunteers who experienced migraine or tension headaches for at least one year, who had at least primary education, mental capabilities to complete the questionnaires and comprehend the scope of the study, and who had not used regular medication (more than 5 per month) including migraine and tension headache prophylaxis participated in the study.

Those with alcohol-substance and caffeine addiction, chronic physical illness, shift workers, pregnant and breastfeeding women, smokers, patients with neurological disorders other than episodic migraine and tension headache, and those with endocrine and systemic diseases were excluded from the study.

The control group consisted of 100 healthy volunteers who were matched with the migraine and tension headache groups in terms of age and sex. The control group was also subjected to the exclusion criteria listed above. In addition, those diagnosed with headache or who experienced headache for any reason within the past six months were also excluded from the study.

Detailed clinical history was taken from the participants. Systemic physical examinations and neurological examinations were performed. All patients were evaluated on days without headache. The number of migraine and tension-type headache episodes, duration of disease, and frequency of headaches were recorded. Height and weight were measured and Body Mass indexes were calculated. All participants were administered Beck Depression inventory (BDI), Beck Anxiety inventory (BAI), Epworth Sleepiness scale (ESS), Berlin questionnaire, Insomnia Severity index (ISI), and Pittsburgh Sleep Quality index (PSQI). Presence and severity of Restless Legs syndrome (RLS) was evaluated according to International RLS Study Group criteria.

Data Collection Form

The data collection form was developed by the researchers for study purposes and included questions related to the life stories of the participants. It included general information of patient and control groups. The form was applied at initial admission and collected data including age, sex, marital status, education level, place of residence, level of income, habits, drugs used, and history of comorbid disease.

Beck Depression Inventory

The BDI was developed by Beck et al. (16) in order to evaluate bodily, emotional, and motivational symptoms observed in depression. Total score ranges between 0-63, in which 0-9 indicates minimal, 10-16 mild, 17-29 moderate, and 30-63 severe depression. The scale’s Turkish validity and reliability study was conducted by Hisli et al. (17).

Beck Anxiety Inventory

BAI was developed by Beck et al. (18) to measure the person’s frequency of anxiety symptoms. Total score ranges between 0-63, in which 8-15 indicates mild anxiety, 16-25 moderate anxiety, and 26-63 severe anxiety. The scale’s Turkish validity and reliability study was conducted by Ulusoy et al. (19).

Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index

PSQI was developed by Buysse et al. (20). The scale consists of 18 questions comprising 7 components. These components consist of subjective sleep quality, sleep latency, sleep duration, habitual sleep efficiency, sleep disturbances, use of sleeping medication, and daytime dysfunction. Higher scores point to poor sleep quality and high level of sleep disorder. A total score of 5 or higher indicates poor clinical sleep quality. The Turkish validity and reliability study was conducted by Ağargün et al. (21).

Epworth Sleepiness Scale

This scale is used to measure daytime sleepiness. Total score of 10 and higher indicates excessive daytime sleepiness (22). The scale’s Turkish validity and reliability study was conducted by Izci et al. (23).

Berlin Questionnaire

The Berlin Questionnaire was developed for OSAS screening. It contains a total of 10 questions in three categories. Each category is evaluated separately; positive results in two or more categories is considered high risk for OSAS (24).

Insomnia Severity Index

ISI, developed to determine the degree of insomnia symptoms, can be used in population screenings as well as in the clinical evaluation of insomnia. Score between 0-7 indicates no clinically significant insomnia, 8-14 mild, 15-21 moderate, and 22-28 severe insomnia (25). The Turkish validity and reliability study of the index was conducted by Boysan et al. (26) in 2010.

Restless Legs Syndrome Evaluation

RLS was evaluated according to International RLS Study Group diagnostic criteria which was revised in 2014 (27). The disease severity scale developed by the International RLS Study Group was used in patients determined to have RLS (28). The overall score reflects the severity of the disease. The maximum score is 40 and graded as 1-10 mild, 11-20 moderate, 21-30 severe, and 31-40 very severe.

Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis was performed using the SPSS® 22.0 (Statistical Package for Social Sciences, IBM Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) package program. Descriptive statistics of the data was analyzed. Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to assess normality distribution. Chi-square test was used to compare categorical variables. In data with normal distribution, ANOVA and post-hoc Turkey’s test were used to compare the three groups. In data without normal distribution, Kruskal-Wallis test was used to compare the three groups and Mann-Whitney U test was used for two-way comparisons when there was significant difference. Pearson correlation test was used for data with normal distribution, while Spearman correlation was used for data without normal distribution. P value less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Results

There was no significant difference between the migraine group, tension headache group, and control group according to age and sex. Mean BMI was significantly higher in the migraine group compared to the control group. The sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of the migraine and headache patients are presented in Table 1.

Table 1

While patients with migraine and tension-type headache had significantly higher anxiety and depression scores compared to the control group, there was no significant difference between the migraine and tension-type headache groups. ESS and ISI scores were significantly higher in the migraine and tension-type headache groups compared to the control group, while there was no significant difference between the migraine and tension-type headache groups according to ESS and ISI scores. Based on the results of the Berlin questionnaire, migraine patients had higher OSAS risk compared to the control group. BAI, BDI, ESS, ISI, Berlin questionnaire scores and RLS rates and severities of the migraine and tension headache patients and the control group are displayed in Table 2.

Table 2

According to PSQI scores, 37% of the control group, 69.6% of the migraine group, and 59% of the tension headache group had poor sleep quality. According to subcomponents of PSQI, migraine patients had higher rates of poor sleep quality, sleep disturbances, and daytime dysfunction compared to the tension headache group. Sleep latency and sleep efficiency subcomponent scores were significantly worse in tension-type headache patients compared to migraine patients. Overall PSQI scores of the three groups and comparison of subscale scores are presented in Table 3.

Table 3

The relationships between ESS, ISI, total PSQI, and Berlin questionnaire scores and age, BMI, disease duration, headache frequency, BDI, and BAI in migraine patients are presented in Table 4.

Table 4

The relationships between ESS, ISI, total PSQI, and Berlin questionnaire scores and age, BMI, disease duration, headache frequency, BDI, and BAI in patients with tension-type headache are presented in Table 5.

Table 5

Discussion

Despite the differences of etiopathogeneses in primary headaches, the hypothalamus plays a critical role in headache episodes (29,30). At the same time, the hypothalamus is the main regulator of homeostatic mechanisms, including sleep-wake cycles, indicating a common etiopathogenesis (31). However, there is a complex relationship between pain, sleep, and mental state with indistinguishable limits. Pain can disrupt sleep quality, while disturbance of sleep routine can induce pain, manifesting as depression and anxiety (11,32,33). On the other hand, depression and anxiety can lead to sleep disorders and induce headaches (6,7,9,10).

In our study, mean BMI values were found significantly higher in migraine patients compared to healthy control subjects. The higher prevalence of episodic migraine in obese individuals suggests that obesity and migraine may have a common etiologic factor (34,35). A meta-analysis comprised of data of up to 300,000 participants reported 37% increased migraine risk in obese adults (36). Both obesity and migraine induce the release of proinflammatory cytokines and neuropeptides. Therefore, the inflammatory processes of migraine and obesity seems connected (34,37). On the other hand, obesity is a factor also known to negatively affect sleep quality (38,39). Obesity is also a significant risk factor for OSAS (40). Nonetheless, sleep duration and quality has been determined to affect the metabolic and endocrine systems, and that shortened sleep duration may cause weight gain and obesity by impairing the neurohormonal balance (41). The literature findings described above reflect the complex structure of the relationship between obesity, migraine, and sleep.

ESS scores were significantly higher in patients with migraine and tension-type headache compared to healthy control subjects. In addition, according to ESS scores, 29.4% of migraine patients, 21% of tension headache patients, and 6% of the control group had excessive daytime sleepiness. There was a weak correlation between ESS score and BMI and a very weak correlation between ESS scores and headache frequency, BDI, and BAI scores in migraine patients. In patients with tension-type headache, there was a weak correlation between ESS score and BDI and BAI scores, and a very weak correlation between ESS score and BMI. Excessive daytime sleepiness is one of the most common symptoms in neurological disorders that can affect quality of life by increasing the risk of accidents and often affecting daily living activities (42). One case-control study of 100 episodic migraine patients compared to healthy controls showed that daytime sleepiness was higher in migraine patients than controls and daytime sleepiness was associated with migraine disability, sleep problems, and anxiety (43). In another study, excessive daytime sleepiness levels were significantly higher in tension headache patients compared to the control group, and reported excessive daytime sleepiness was associated with depression and anxiety (14). On the contrary, another study showed no excessive daytime sleepiness in migraine patients (44). One study that excluded comorbid states (anxiety, depression, and poor sleep quality) did not find a significant difference between migraine patients and healthy control in terms of excessive daytime sleepiness (45). Evaluation of information in the literature and the results of our study together suggest that the significant relationship between migraine and tension headache and excessive daytime sleepiness may be related to poor sleep quality, depression, and anxiety encountered in migraine and tension headache.

According to the results of the Berlin questionnaire in the study, 20.6% of migraine patients were at high risk for OSAS and this rate was significantly higher compared to the control group. A significant positive correlation between total Berlin questionnaire scores and BMI was also found. However, headache frequency did not correlate with Berlin Questionnaire scores. OSAS patients usually have complaints of morning headaches (11,46). Snoring, the cardinal symptom of OSAS, has been determined to be a risk factor for chronic migraine (47). On the other hand, a review of results from different epidemiological studies showed that there was no relationship between OSAS and migraine (48). In our study, the fact that BMI values were higher in the migraine group may indicate this finding is related to obesity. However, it should also be considered that vascular diseases and obesity are prevalent in both migraine and OSAS patients (46).

RLS criteria were met by 9.8% of migraine patients and 6.7% of tension headache patients. One meta-analysis reported high and heterogeneous prevalence of RLS (ranging between 8.7-39%) in migraine patients (49). The underlying pathophysiology of high prevalence of RLS in migraine has been researched. Dopamine and iron imbalance as a common mechanism for both migraine and RLS has been proposed (46,50). One study reported RLS prevalence of 6% in patients with tension-type headache (51). There are few studies on tension-type headache and RLS. Nevertheless, the etiology of high prevalence of restless leg prevalence in migraine and tension headache patients has not been fully explained. Further studies are needed to explain the underlying pathophysiology of this association.

In our study, the ISI scores of migraine patients and tension headache patients were significantly higher compared to the control group. In addition, there was a significant correlation between ISI scores and headache frequency, BAI, and BDI scores in both migraine and tension headache patients. One study reported increased risk of migraine and non-migraine headache in individuals experiencing insomnia, and in the same study also showed that insomnia affected the clinical manifestation of migraine (52). Insomnia was also reported to be a factor that triggers tension-type headache (53). These findings draw attention to the importance of this comorbidity.

In our study, total PSQI scores were found significantly higher in migraine and tension headache patients compared to the control group. Subjective sleep quality, sleep disturbance, and daytime dysfunction scores were significantly higher in migraine patients compared to tension headache patients, while sleep latency and Sleep Efficiency scores were significantly higher in tension headache patients compared to migraine patients. There was also a significant correlation between total PSQI scores and BAI and BDI scores. Current studies on the pathogenesis of tension-type headache and migraine have focused on mechanisms leading to pain sensitivity. Potential factors that may affect sensitivity mechanisms including stress, depression, or sleep disorders all play a vital role: reducing nociceptive firing threshold and causing hyperalgesia (1). However, while both primary headache types show similar pathogenic mechanisms, the pathogenesis and clinical manifestations of the two headaches are different. For this reason, they may have different effects on different areas of sleep. Therefore, a better understanding of the various effects of tension-type headache and migraine on the components of sleep may help clinicians establish better and sufficient therapeutic programs. One study reported that severe sleep disorder was five times more prevalent in migraine patients and three times more prevalent in tension-type headache patients compared to individuals without headache (54). It was reported that poor sleep quality may trigger migraine episode (13) and that migraine patients experiencing poor sleep had greater frequency of headaches (55). Poor sleep quality was also indicated that it may be a risk factor for the chronification of episodic tension-type headache (56). Another publication also reported that poorer sleep quality may cause more frequent headaches in patients with tension-type headaches (57). On the other hand, it is well-known that depression and anxiety disrupt sleep, therefore researching this comorbidity is vital (7,58). Evaluation of the results of our study together with information from the literature indicates that treatment of sleep disorders may have a positive effect on headache treatment. In addition, sleep disorder screening should be considered in all patients with headache. Sleep questionnaires can be used for these screenings. This situation may be considered when managing treatment of patients with positive screening results. Patients with positive screening results may also be referred to a sleep specialist.

Study Limitations

The main limitation of our study was that it did not include polysomnography and actigraphy evaluation. However, double-center study design, and concomitant evaluation of migraine and tension-type headache patients, as well as the use of multiple sleep questionnaires, could be considered the strengths of our study.

Conclusion

A strong relationship was determined between migraine and tension headaches and sleep disorders. However, reverse causality could not be ruled out; sleep disorders may lead to headaches or headaches may be the cause of sleep disorders. The cause of this coexistence may be common pathophysiology. Narrow statements that a headache patient has or does not have a sleep disorder should be avoided. This is because in the past, it was simply stated that there was or wasn’t a sleep disorder, while now the term “sleep disorders” encompasses an ever-expanding spectrum, including insomnia, obstructive sleep apnea, poor sleep quality as well as other sleep disorders. Behavioral therapy has shown positive effects on headache (59) and sleep disorders (60). This information indicates that there is a need for results of behavioral therapy studies on the coexistence of headaches and sleep disorders.

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Sleep Disorders Accompanying Migraine and Tension Headaches